# Preparing a Cycling Event — Time Trials, Mediofondo, Granfondo and Century: Hours, Long Rides, Intervals, Fuelling and Taper

phase.fitness · Methodology · Sport-specific · cycling · Updated 19 October 2026 · HTML version: https://www.phase.fitness/methodology/training-cycling-events

> How this document is used: it is one of the documents the phase.fitness generator reads before writing a phase. The principles below are passed to the model as context and the numbers become bands the program has to respect. The references are stripped from the prompt and kept here.

A cycling event can last twenty-five minutes or eight hours. A time trial is a solo effort against the
clock, ridden at about the highest power the rider can hold for its duration; a mediofondo or a
granfondo is a mass-start ride of three to eight hours for most amateurs, ridden mostly below
threshold, with the hard minutes concentrated on the climbs. The two ends ask for the same foundation
— a large amount of easy riding and a threshold that keeps rising — and differ in what is built on top
of it: threshold work and aerodynamics for the time trial; long rides, power on the climbs, fuelling
and riding in a group for the mass-start events.

This document describes how a preparation for a cycling event is built, from a rider's first weeks to
a time goal: what each event demands, how long the preparation lasts, how many hours a week it
reaches, how the long ride grows, the key sessions, the weekly structure, the taper, the fuelling and
how a target time is judged. It complements the general cycling document, which covers the principles
of power-based training and strength work for cyclists in general.

## What the Events Demand

| Event | Distance | Typical amateur duration | Average intensity | What decides it |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Short time trial | 16–25 km (10 miles to 25 km) | 25–45 min | about FTP, slightly above for trained riders | threshold power, aerodynamics, even pacing |
| 40-km time trial | 30–50 km (25 miles) | 55–90 min | about FTP, a little below for less-trained riders | threshold power held for an hour, the aero position |
| Mediofondo | 70–110 km | 2½–4½ hours | about 70–75% of FTP; climbs near threshold | aerobic base, power per kilogram on the climbs, group riding, fuelling |
| Granfondo, century | 120–180 km; a century is 160 km (100 miles) | 4–8 hours | about 65–70% of FTP | durability, fuelling, pacing, long-ride experience |
| A first event | 40–110 km, ridden to finish | 2–6 hours | conversational | time in the saddle, comfort, eating and drinking |

### Time trials: threshold and air

In professional riders, short time trials are raced at about the intensity at which blood lactate
reaches 4 mmol/L and longer ones a little lower, near the lactate threshold; for amateurs both sit
around the functional threshold power (FTP). On the flat most of the power goes into pushing air —
about four fifths of the resistance at 30 km/h and about 90% at 50 km/h — so two levers decide the
result: the power the rider can hold, which threshold training raises, and the drag of rider and bike,
which position, clothing and equipment lower. The best pacing is close to even, a little harder uphill
and into the wind; a fast start costs more time later than it gains. For scale, the world hour record
on the track is 56.8 km: no amateur time trial is faster than that pace.

### Mediofondo and granfondo: base, climbs and the group

A mass-start event is ridden mostly below threshold, but not evenly. In an amateur alpine event of 230
km and 5,500 m of climbing, recreational riders took about ten hours at an average heart rate of 77% of
their maximum, spending about 40% of the time at 80–90% of maximum and about 14% above 90%. Three things
decide most amateurs' time:

- **Power per kilogram on the climbs.** In a hilly sportive of almost 200 km with four long climbs and
  about 3,500 m of ascent, riders who finished in under six hours climbed at about 4.3 W/kg, those under
  seven at about 3.4 and those under eight at about 2.9; climbing power explained almost all of the
  difference in finishing time. Faster riders were lighter, had ridden the event more often and trained
  more — about 15½, 13 and 9½ hours a week in the three groups.
- **Durability.** What a rider produces after several hours matters more than what they produce fresh.
  Even professional cyclists' best power for efforts of every length fell by about 2–3% after 15 kJ of
  work per kilogram of body weight and by 6–10% after 45 kJ/kg, and the stronger riders lost less. Long
  rides, volume, fuelling and strength work all build it.
- **The group.** In a small paceline a following rider meets 50–70% of the air resistance of riding
  alone, and in the middle of a large bunch only 5–10%. Riding in a group — holding a wheel, eating
  while riding, descending in company — is a trained skill, and an hour sheltered in a group is energy
  saved for the last climb.

These events are long for amateurs: in a one-day event with routes of 167, 225 and 312 km, riders with a
median age of about 47 took a median of about 7½, 10 and 12½ hours, at 22–25 km/h including stops.
Cut-offs vary by event: one alpine granfondo closes its 138-km route at an average of about 13–14 km/h
from the first start, while a Gran Fondo World Series event closed its 120-km route after five hours,
24 km/h.

### The first event: finishing

For a beginner the first mediofondo or granfondo — or a sportive's short route of 40–70 km — is a test
of time in the saddle more than of fitness. The plan's job is to make the rider comfortable for the
expected duration, able to eat and drink on the bike, and well inside the event's time limit.

## Before the Block: Starting Point, Readiness and Length

### Starting from zero

A new runner is limited by tissues not yet used to impact; a new cyclist much less so, because
pedalling carries no body weight. What limits a new rider is time in the saddle — the seat, the hands,
the neck and lower back — the position on the bike, the skills of traffic, braking, cornering and
descending, and eating and drinking on the move.

- **Frequency first.** Three rides a week as soon as possible, with a rest day between them at first.
  Untrained adults who commuted by bike at least three times a week improved their peak power and
  aerobic capacity over a year, and the more minutes they rode, the more they improved: a first event
  needs regular riding before it needs hard riding.
- **Then duration.** Each ride grows by about 10–15 minutes a week, the weekend ride more, until the
  rider can ride an hour continuously three times a week.
- **Then intensity.** No structured intervals until about four weeks of three rides a week and a ride
  of about 90 minutes; short sprints and cadence work can start earlier.
- **Check the bike.** Saddle height is the most important setting: a 5% change in saddle height changes
  knee motion by about a third and knee loads by about a sixth, while changes under about 4% of leg
  length seem not to matter. A basic fit before the hours grow prevents most knee complaints.

The first mediofondo or granfondo is a distance goal, ridden at a conversational effort, with the long
ride as the plan's key session; a time goal comes with the next event.

### Readiness

An event-specific block starts from a base, not from zero. The table gives the base this app asks for
before the specific weeks; below it, the first weeks of the plan build that base.

| Event and goal | Rides a week | Hours a week | Longest ride in the last eight weeks |
|---|---|---|---|
| Time trial, finish | 2 | 1.5 | 45 min (short), 60 min (40 km) |
| Time trial, time goal | 3 | 3 | 90 min |
| Mediofondo, finish | 2 | 2 | 90 min |
| Mediofondo, time goal | 3 | 4 | 2:30 |
| Granfondo or century, finish | 3 | 3 | 2:00 |
| Granfondo or century, time goal | 3 | 5 | 3:00 |

These thresholds are the coaching consensus, not trial results. They match the start of the published
plans for a first century — three rides a week and a long ride of about two hours — and they are the
shortest base from which the lengths below reach each event without the long ride growing faster than
15–30 minutes a week.

### How long the preparation lasts

| Situation | Time trial | Mediofondo | Granfondo or century |
|---|---|---|---|
| Below the readiness base, or a first event from little riding | 8–12 weeks | 12–16 weeks | 16–24 weeks |
| With the base, first time at the distance | 8–12 weeks | 8–12 weeks | 10–14 weeks |
| Experienced at the distance, with a current base | 6–10 weeks | 8–12 weeks | 10–14 weeks |
| Low current volume, returning after a break, or 50+ | 12–16 weeks | 14–18 weeks | 18–24 weeks |

These lengths are coaching practice. Cycling organisations' plans for a first 100 km or 100 miles last
eight to ten weeks from riders who already ride about two hours at a time. As for any race, the plan is
built backwards from the event: the taper ends on the event, the specific weeks sit before it, and the
base fills whatever time is left. A plan that would end weeks before the event extends its base
instead.

## Weekly Volume

Cycling volume is counted in hours, not kilometres: a kilometre on a climb, in a headwind or in a group
costs very different amounts of work, and an hour does not. In the hilly sportive above, faster riders
trained more hours; in the one-day event of 167, 225 and 312 km, riders preparing the longer routes
trained a median of about 9, 10 and 12 hours a week, on three or four days. Professional road riders
in a pre-season block trained about 19 hours a week (women about 17).

### Peak week by event and target

The row is set by how demanding the target is: the FTP per kilogram it asks for (see "Judging a
Target"), in the categories power-meter makers use after the classic power-profile tables.

| Category | Men, FTP in W/kg | Women, FTP in W/kg |
|---|---|---|
| Untrained | under 2.23 | under 1.90 |
| Fair | 2.23–2.78 | 1.90–2.35 |
| Good | 2.79–3.92 | 2.36–3.32 |
| Excellent | 3.93–5.04 | 3.33–4.29 |
| Superior | 5.05 and above | 4.30 and above |

| Target asks for | Short time trial | 40-km time trial | Mediofondo | Granfondo or century |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Finish, or an untrained-level FTP | 2.5–3.5 h | 3–4 h | 3.5–5 h | 5–7 h |
| Fair | 3–5 h | 3.5–5.5 h | 4.5–7 h | 6–9 h |
| Good | 4.5–7 h | 5–8 h | 6–9 h | 8–12 h |
| Excellent | 6–10 h | 7–11 h | 8–12 h | 11–16 h |
| Superior | 9–14 h | 10–15 h | 11–16 h | 14–20 h |

These are coaching-practice peaks, consistent with the amateur data: sportive riders who climbed at
about 2.9, 3.4 and 4.3 W/kg trained about 9½, 13 and 15½ hours a week. They are reached in the last
weeks before the taper; they are not starting points. A rider begins from their own recent hours,
measured over the weeks they actually rode. Riders on three rides a week sit at the low end of their
row; the high end needs five or more.

### Progression and lighter weeks

- **Beginners grow by minutes, not percentages**: about 10–15 minutes per ride per week, and one more
  ride a week before longer rides.
- **Trained riders grow by about 10% a week** between loading weeks. Cycling's overuse problems are
  mostly of the knee and lower back — over half of professional riders reported lower-back pain and
  about a third anterior knee pain in a year — so the ceiling is set by fatigue, saddle comfort and
  position as much as by tissue tolerance. No cycling trial has tested progression rates; 10% is the
  coaching consensus also used for running.
- **A lighter week every third or fourth week** cuts volume by about 25–35%, keeps a shorter long ride
  and at most one short quality session — the coaching consensus, as for runners. Masters riders and
  riders above about eight hours a week use every third week. After it, the plan resumes at the level
  of the last loading week.
- **Reach the peak three to five weeks before a granfondo and two to four before a mediofondo or a time
  trial, and hold it** for two or three weeks rather than peaking for a single week. A rider already
  near the peak for their target does not climb further: the block shifts its effort to the quality of
  the key sessions and the long ride.

## The Long Ride

The long ride builds durability, fat oxidation and comfort in the saddle; it is where the event's food,
drink, clothing and bike are rehearsed, and in the specific weeks where the event's intensity is
practised on tired legs.

| Event | Longest ride | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Short time trial | 1:30–3:00 by level | aerobic base; easy throughout |
| 40-km time trial | 1:45–3:00 by level | aerobic base; some tempo |
| Mediofondo | 3:00–4:00 by level, up to about the expected event time | tempo blocks and surges in the specific weeks |
| Granfondo or century | 4:00–5:30 by level, about 85% of the event distance when that fits | goal-intensity blocks and the event's fuelling in the specific weeks |

- **It starts where the rider is**: the longest ride of the last eight weeks, not a number from a table.
- **It grows by 15–30 minutes per loading week** — about 15 minutes while under two hours, up to 30
  minutes (10–15%) once longer — and is shortened by about a quarter in lighter weeks rather than
  dropped. Published plans for a first century add 5–10 miles a week from a two-hour ride.
- **It reaches most of the event.** Plans for a first century build to about 85 miles, 85% of the
  distance, and plans for a first 100 km to 90–100 km; a rider who can comfortably ride half the
  distance can usually finish the whole, which is the least a preparation should reach.
- **It is capped by time.** Coaching practice stops it at about five and a half hours even for slower
  riders: the recovery cost of a longer solo ride outweighs what it adds, and the event itself — with
  feed stations and groups to shelter in — costs less per hour than a solo ride. No trial has set this
  cap; it is the consensus.
- **The longest rides fall five to two weeks before the event**: the last about three weeks out for a
  granfondo and two weeks out for a mediofondo.
- **It takes a large share of the week.** A first-century plan of three rides a week — a long ride
  growing toward 85 miles and two weekday rides growing from an hour to about two — puts about 60% of
  the week into the long ride; with four rides it is about half, and less with more. Cycling's low
  impact allows a larger share than a runner's long run. The day before and the day after are easy,
  and heavy leg strength work stays at least 48 hours away.

## Weekly Structure and Blocks

Hard sessions are never on consecutive days, and the day after the long ride is easy or off. The long
ride is not counted among the quality sessions, even when it carries tempo blocks.

| Rides a week | Quality sessions | A typical week |
|---|---|---|
| 2 | 1 (none in the first weeks of a first event) | a quality ride of 60–75 minutes midweek, the long ride at the weekend |
| 3 | 1 | a quality ride, an endurance ride with cadence work or sprints, the long ride |
| 4 | 1; 2 for trained and competitive riders | quality, endurance, quality or endurance, long ride |
| 5 or more | 2 | two quality rides with an easy day between, endurance and recovery rides, the long ride |

Two quality sessions a week are enough for almost every rider. A block that concentrates intervals —
one week with five interval sessions, then weeks with one — improved VO2max by about 5% and power at a
low lactate by about 10% in trained cyclists, where the same work spread at two a week changed nothing;
it belongs to experienced riders with a stable base.

The plan is built backwards from the event: the taper ends on it, the specific block sits before the
taper, and the weeks before that split into a base and a build.

| Block | When | Time trial | Mediofondo | Granfondo or century |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Base | first half of the weeks before the specific block | endurance, cadence work, sprints; tempo, then sweet spot | as the time trial; long ride growing | as the mediofondo; long ride growing to about three hours |
| Build | second half | threshold progression; VO2max every week | sweet spot and threshold; VO2max every week or two; climbing at threshold | sweet spot and threshold; VO2max every other week for trained riders; tempo inside long rides |
| Specific | last 4–6 weeks before the taper (time trial), 6 (mediofondo), 6–8 (granfondo) | goal-power efforts in the race position; VO2max kept | climbing repeats, surges, long rides with tempo blocks | long rides with goal-intensity blocks and the event's fuelling; sweet-spot climbing |
| Taper | last 7–14 days | volume cut, short efforts | volume cut, short efforts | volume cut, short efforts |

A first event ridden for the finish has no quality sessions until the rider has three rides a week and
a long ride of about 90 minutes: the base is the whole plan, and the long ride is its key session.

## The Taper

- **Cut the volume by about half, keep the intensity.** In trained cyclists, a seven-day taper that cut
  training volume by 50% while keeping the intervals at the same intensity improved a 20-km time trial
  by about 5%; cuts of 30% or 80% produced no clear gain. Pooled across endurance athletes, only volume
  cuts of 41–60% improved performance, and only when intensity and the number of sessions were kept.
- **Eight to fourteen days.** Tapers of eight to fourteen days had the largest effect in the pooled
  data; seven days and up to three weeks also worked, and a progressive reduction did better than a
  single step down.
- **Hard work before the taper helps** trained riders: in elite cyclists, six days of daily intervals
  followed by a five-day taper raised VO2peak and one-minute power more than a conventional eleven-day
  taper. It is not for a first event.

| Event | Length | Week before race week | Race week, before the event | Last quality |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Time trial | 7–10 days | about 80% of peak volume | about 50% | 3–4 days out: 3–4 × 3–5 min at goal power |
| Mediofondo | 7–10 days | about 75% | about 50% | 3–4 days out: sweet spot or threshold, about half the usual work |
| Granfondo or century | 10–14 days | about 70%, long ride about 2½–3 hours | about 50%, no ride over 90 minutes | 3–5 days out: tempo or sweet spot, short |
| First event, finish goal | race week only | — | about 70% | none: easy rides |

The day before the event is a ride of 30–60 minutes with a few short efforts — "openers". No trial has
tested the format; it is the coaching consensus, and follows the taper's principle: keep the intensity,
drop the volume.

## The Key Sessions

### Endurance rides, recovery rides, cadence and sprints

The endurance ride is most of the plan: zone 2, conversational, from an hour to several hours, ridden
genuinely easy — on hills that means low gears. A recovery ride is 30–60 minutes in zone 1 on flat roads
after the long ride or a hard day; a day off does the same job. Two low-cost additions fit into
endurance rides:

- **Cadence work** — 6–10 × 1 minute at 100–110 rpm with easy spinning between. Professional riders
  pedal at about 90 rpm on flat stages and in time trials and about 70 rpm on long climbs; being
  comfortable across that range is a skill. Low-cadence, high-torque efforts (4–6 × 5 minutes at 50–70
  rpm in zone 3) have no strong evidence of benefit and are optional, for hilly events.
- **Short sprints** — 6–8 × 8–12 seconds, seated and standing, with full recovery: the cyclist's
  version of strides.

### Tempo and sweet spot

| Session | Intensity | Progression | Between blocks |
|---|---|---|---|
| Tempo | 76–90% of FTP, zone 3 | 2 × 15 min → 2 × 20 → 2 × 30; for a granfondo, 45–90 min inside the long ride | 5 min easy |
| Sweet spot | 88–94% of FTP, zones 3–4 | 3 × 10 min → 3 × 15 → 2 × 20 → 3 × 20 or 2 × 30 | 5 min easy |

Tempo is close to the effort most amateurs ride a mediofondo or granfondo at, so it is also those
events' specific intensity. Sweet spot is the base and build blocks' main session for riders with few
hours: more training effect per hour than endurance riding, less fatigue than threshold work.

### Threshold

| Form | Example | Progression |
|---|---|---|
| Threshold intervals | 3 × 8 min at 95–100% of FTP, 4 min easy | 3 × 12 → 2 × 20 → 3 × 15 → 2 × 25: from about 25 to about 50 minutes of work |
| Over-unders | 3–4 × 9 min alternating 2 min at 95% and 1 min at 105–110% | for mass-start events with surges; coaching practice |

Threshold work is the time trial's main session from the build to the specific block, and the one that
raises the power a rider holds on a long climb. Recoveries are a quarter to a half of the work time. In
trained recreational cyclists, four 8-minute intervals at the highest intensity they could sustain —
about 90% of maximal heart rate — improved VO2peak and threshold power about twice as much as four
4-minute or four 16-minute intervals.

### VO2max intervals

| Form | Example | Total work |
|---|---|---|
| Long intervals | 4–6 × 4–5 min at 106–120% of FTP, recovery equal or slightly shorter | 16–25 min |
| Medium intervals | 5–6 × 3 min, equal recovery | 15–18 min |
| Short intervals | 2–3 series of 13 × (30 s hard / 15 s easy), 3 min between series | 13–20 min |

- In competitive cyclists, ten weeks of two sessions a week of the short 30/15 format improved VO2max by
  about 9% and 40-minute power by about 12%, against about 3% and 4% for 4 × 5 minutes of matched
  effort; in elite cyclists the same format improved 20-minute power by about 5% in three weeks.
- In endurance cyclists, six sessions of 8 × 4 minutes at about 85% of peak aerobic power, or 12 × 30
  seconds at 175%, improved a 40-km time trial by 2–3% in three weeks. Pooled across trials, intervals
  of four minutes or longer improved time trials about 2% more than all-out sprint intervals.
- Every week in the build block before a time trial, every week or two before a mass-start event,
  ridden hard but evenly: the last repeat at the same power as the first.

### Event-specific efforts

| Event | Example sessions | When |
|---|---|---|
| Short time trial | 3 × 10 min → 2 × 15 → 2 × 20 at goal power (about 100–105% of FTP) in the race position | last 4–6 weeks before the taper |
| 40-km time trial | 3 × 12 min → 2 × 20 → 1 × 30–40 at goal power (about 92–100% of FTP) in the race position | last 4–6 weeks before the taper |
| Mediofondo | climbing repeats 4–6 × 6–10 min at sweet spot to threshold; long rides with surges and 2 × 20 min at tempo | last 6 weeks before the taper |
| Granfondo or century | long rides with 2–3 × 20–45 min at goal intensity (tempo) in the second half, climbs at sweet spot, the event's fuelling | last 6–8 weeks before the taper |

The specific sessions also check the goal: if 2 × 20 minutes at 40-km goal power cannot be completed
three weeks out, or the tempo blocks at the end of the longest ride fall apart, the goal is too fast. A
time-trial rider spends this block in the position they will race in, so that it can be held for the
whole distance.

## Intensity in Brief

Functional threshold power is the anchor of cycling intensity: roughly the highest power a rider can
hold in a long, steady effort. The zones are shares of it; shorter efforts sit toward the top of each
zone and longer ones toward the bottom. Without a power meter the app's five heart-rate zones and
perceived effort stand in for them (see "Testing FTP, Heart Rate and Effort").

| Zone | Name | % of FTP | Heart-rate zone | Effort (0–10) | Typical use |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Active recovery | under 55% | 1 | 2–3 | Recovery rides, warm-up, cool-down |
| 2 | Endurance | 56–75% | 2 | 3–4 | Endurance rides and the long ride: most of the time |
| 3 | Tempo | 76–90% | 3 | 5–6 | Tempo blocks; the average effort of a granfondo |
| — | Sweet spot | 88–94% | 3–4 | 6 | Long intervals just below threshold |
| 4 | Threshold | 91–105% | 4 | 7 | Threshold intervals; time trials |
| 5 | VO2max | 106–120% | 5 by the end of each repeat | 8–9 | Intervals of 3–8 minutes |
| 6 | Anaerobic capacity | over 120% | not useful | 9–10 | Efforts of 30 seconds to 3 minutes |
| 7 | Neuromuscular | maximal | not useful | 10 | Sprints of a few seconds |

"Sweet spot" is a coaching term for the top of zone 3 and the bottom of zone 4, not a physiological
zone, and no trial has tested it as such; it is used because it gives a lot of near-threshold work for
its fatigue cost, which suits riders with few hours.

**Distribution.** Most of the time stays in zones 1 and 2. In trained cyclists, six weeks of
*polarized* training — about 80% easy, almost nothing at tempo, about 20% hard — improved peak power by
about 8% and threshold power by about 9%, against 3% and 2% for a programme with 43% of the time at
moderate intensity. Pooled across endurance sports, polarized training improved VO2peak slightly more,
mainly in highly trained athletes, but time-trial performance improved equally with a *pyramidal*
distribution (mostly easy, a smaller share at tempo and threshold, a little VO2max work), and
recreational athletes gained more VO2max with the pyramidal one. Hard sessions are time-efficient — in
active people, two weeks of short sprint intervals, about 2½ hours in all, improved a time trial as
much as 10½ hours of steady riding — but they do not build the durability a long event needs. The
choice in this app: every plan keeps at least three quarters of its time easy; riders with fewer than
about six hours a week and recreational riders follow a pyramidal ladder, with tempo and sweet spot
taking a large share of the quality work; trained and competitive riders with more hours move toward a
polarized week in the build and specific blocks. Both cap the hard sessions at two a week.

## Fuelling and Hydration on Long Rides

A time trial of up to an hour needs no food during the effort: a normal meal two to four hours before,
and at most a mouth rinse or a few sips of a carbohydrate drink. Everything changes past two hours.

- **How much carbohydrate.** For about an hour, a mouth rinse or small amounts already help. For two to
  three hours, up to about 60 g per hour, about the most a single sugar can supply; beyond about two and
  a half hours, up to about 90 g per hour from mixtures of glucose and fructose. In a dose–response trial
  in cyclists, a time trial after two hours of riding improved with every step of intake up to about 78 g
  per hour, with little extra beyond it.
- **Scale with intensity.** These rates are for riders working hard. A rider riding slowly for seven
  hours burns less carbohydrate per hour and does not need 90 g; for most amateurs in a granfondo, 60–80
  g per hour is a sound target. Riders in amateur and competitive events took on average about 50–60 g
  per hour.
- **Start early, eat little and often.** Eat from the first 30–45 minutes, then every 20–30 minutes; the
  gut cannot catch up on a deficit built in the first two hours.
- **Train the gut.** Stomach emptying and intestinal absorption adapt to repeated intake within days to
  about two weeks, so the race intake is rehearsed on every long ride of the specific block. In a large
  amateur event almost four riders in ten reported gut complaints during the ride; complaints at rest
  and nerves before the start predicted them better than what riders ate.
- **Drinking.** Drink to keep body-mass loss under about 2% of body weight, and never so much that weight
  goes up during the ride, which risks low blood sodium. A rider estimates their sweat rate by weighing
  themselves before and after a training ride; amateurs in a long one-day event drank about half a litre
  an hour.
- **Before the event.** For events over about 90 minutes, a carbohydrate-rich diet for the 36–48 hours
  before (about 10–12 g per kilogram a day) and 1–4 g per kilogram one to four hours before the start.

## Strength Training and the Hybrid Athlete

- **What it improves.** Heavy strength training improves cycling economy and the power left at the end of
  a long ride. In well-trained cyclists, twelve weeks of heavy lower-body work twice a week — four
  exercises, three sets of 4–10 repetitions — raised the power of a 5-minute all-out effort at the end of
  a three-hour ride from about 371 to about 400 W, while the endurance-only group did not change; female
  cyclists improved 40-minute power and economy with the same kind of programme.
- **Replace rather than add, when hours are tight.** In highly trained cyclists, adding strength work on
  top of an unchanged endurance load did not improve performance, while replacing part of the endurance
  training with it — often explosive work — did.
- **Dose.** One or two sessions a week with moderate-to-heavy loads (about 60–85% of 1RM), two to four
  sets of three to five compound lower-body movements, well short of failure. Done this way it does not
  add unwanted muscle mass. One session a week through the competitive period kept the strength gained
  with two a week before it, and performance kept improving.
- **Bones.** Cycling does not load the skeleton: among highly trained masters cyclists, 15% had bone
  density in the osteoporosis range at the spine or hip, against none of the matched non-cyclists.
  Strength training and some impact — jumps, running, stairs — belong in a cyclist's plan.
- **Placement.** Two sessions a week in the base, one in the build and specific blocks, none or a very
  light one in race week. Heavy leg work goes after a quality ride, at least three hours later, or on an
  easy day — never the day before intervals, a threshold session or the long ride. Lighter strength weeks
  coincide with lighter riding weeks.

## Masters Cyclists (45 and Over)

- **The decline is real but modest.** Among competitive cyclists aged 25–63, power in a 16-km time trial
  fell by about 7% per decade, while the intensity they rode at — as a share of their own maximal power
  and heart rate — did not change with age. Much of the decline in endurance athletes follows reduced
  training, so consistent training matters more with age, not less.
- **Recovery feels slower.** Veteran and young cyclists held their power equally well over three
  consecutive days of hard time trials, but the veterans reported more soreness and fatigue. Masters
  riders keep at most two quality sessions a week with easy days between, and a lighter week every
  third week.
- **Intervals stay**, with repeats of three to five minutes preferred to repeated all-out sprints, and
  the strength work above stays all year: muscle and bone decline with age and cycling protects
  neither.
- **A longer preparation.** A masters rider, or a rider returning after a break, uses the longer end of
  the preparation table so the hours can grow gradually.

## Testing FTP, Heart Rate and Effort

### FTP

- **The 20-minute test.** After a thorough warm-up the rider rides 20 minutes as hard as they can hold
  evenly; 95% of the average power is the FTP estimate.
- **How good it is.** On average the estimate sits close to the power at the lactate threshold or the
  maximal lactate steady state, but the individual error is up to about ±10%, and in some studies the
  true steady state lay below it. Riders held the estimated FTP for about 50 minutes on average, not 60:
  recreational riders about 35 minutes, trained riders 42, well-trained riders 47 and professionals 51.
  Their best hour was about 88% of their 20-minute power for recreational riders, 92% for trained, 95%
  for well-trained and 96% for professionals. FTP is a training anchor, not a promise of an hour's
  power, and the less trained the rider, the more it overstates what they can hold for an hour.
- **Retest** every six to eight weeks, or infer FTP from hard rides and events.

### Heart rate when there is no power meter

Heart rate sets the zones with the app's five-zone scale, as a share of the maximal heart rate
(heart-rate-zones.md). For cyclists:

- **The cycling maximum is lower.** In triathletes tested both ways, maximal heart rate on the bike was
  about 4–6 beats lower than on a treadmill and heart rate at the second threshold about 7–9 beats lower.
  A maximum taken from running or from an age equation is lowered by about 5 beats for cycling zones — a
  working assumption of this app built on those data, not a tested rule.
- **Heart rate lags.** It rises with a delay after an effort starts, so VO2max repeats, 30-second
  intervals and sprints are ridden by effort; heart rate only confirms that the last minutes of each
  repeat reached zone 5.
- **Heart rate drifts.** On a long ride at steady power it climbs as the hours pass, and late in a very
  long event it can fall with fatigue. Holding the same perceived effort is closer to holding the same
  power than holding a fixed heart rate.
- A rider can also set zones from a 30-minute solo time trial: the average heart rate of the last 20
  minutes approximates the threshold heart rate.

### Perceived effort

Perceived effort works for every rider and session, and a session rating on a 0–10 scale tracks
heart-rate-based training load well. The talk test is its simplest form: while the rider can speak
comfortably they are below the first threshold, zones 1 and 2; when speech becomes difficult they have
crossed it.

## Judging a Target: From FTP to Speed

A runner's speed depends almost only on the runner; a cyclist's depends on the rider and the road. On
the flat most of the power pushes air, so speed follows absolute watts and drag; on a climb it lifts
rider and bike, so speed follows watts per kilogram; in a group a sheltered rider needs far less power
for the same speed. A target time is therefore judged through the power it asks for.

### The power a speed asks for

The power to ride at a steady speed is the sum of three resistances divided by the drivetrain's
efficiency: air (½ × air density × CdA × speed³, where CdA is the drag area of rider and bike), rolling
(rolling coefficient × total mass × g × speed) and gravity (total mass × g × gradient × speed). This
model, checked against power measured on the road, explained 97% of the variation in measured power,
with an error of about 3 W. The usual values are an air density of 1.2 kg/m³, a rolling coefficient of
0.004 and a drivetrain loss of 2.5%. Measured drag areas of road riders were about 0.30 m² in the
upright road position, 0.28 in the drops and 0.26 on aero bars; a recreational rider sitting more
upright has more. Bike, bottles and kit are taken as 9 kg.

| FTP, 75-kg rider | Flat speed at FTP, upright | Flat speed at FTP, aero bars | 20 km at FTP, aero bars | 40 km at 95% of FTP, aero bars |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2.0 W/kg | about 31 km/h | about 33 km/h | about 37 min | about 75 min |
| 2.5 W/kg | about 34 km/h | about 36 km/h | about 34 min | about 69 min |
| 3.0 W/kg | about 36 km/h | about 38 km/h | about 32 min | about 64 min |
| 3.5 W/kg | about 38 km/h | about 40 km/h | about 30 min | about 61 min |
| 4.0 W/kg | about 40 km/h | about 42 km/h | about 28 min | about 58 min |

### How much of FTP a rider holds

| Duration | Share of FTP | Basis |
|---|---|---|
| 25–45 min (short time trial) | about 100% for recreational riders, 103–105% for trained and competitive | time to exhaustion at FTP of 35–51 minutes by level; short time trials are ridden a little above threshold |
| 45–90 min (40-km time trial) | about 92% recreational, 96% trained, 100% competitive | best-hour power of 88–96% of 20-minute power by level |
| 2–4 hours (mediofondo) | climbs about 88%, the rest about 70% | endurance-paced riding, climbs near sweet spot |
| over 4 hours (granfondo) | climbs about 85%, the rest about 65% | durability: power falls as the work accumulates |

The mass-start shares are a working assumption of this app, checked against the hilly sportive above:
riding its climbs at the power each group was measured at, and the rest at these shares, gives about
5.9, 6.6 and 7.3 hours — matching the groups that finished in under six, seven and eight hours.

### The checks

1. **The target's power.** For a time trial: the FTP that rides the distance on a flat course in the
   target time, in the rider's position, at the share of FTP the duration allows. For a mediofondo or
   granfondo: the course is split into climbs (the total ascent at an average gradient of about 5%),
   descents of the same length ridden at low power, and flat roads ridden partly in groups; the target's
   FTP is the one that rides that course in the target time at the shares above. Its category sets the
   row of the peak-week table.
2. **Against the rider's FTP.** In training studies, recreational and trained cyclists gained about 3–12%
   in threshold or time-trial power over three to ten weeks of structured intervals. The app allows up
   to 10% for novice and recreational riders, 7% for trained and 5% for competitive riders over a plan of
   twelve weeks or more, proportionally less over a shorter one.
3. **Against a recent event.** The same event or course in the last six months is the best evidence of
   current fitness: a target faster than it by more than about 1% is ambitious. A recent solo time trial
   converts to an FTP through the same model; a mass-start event does not, because drafting changes the
   power a time needs by too much.
4. **The peak week.** The plan's peak, from where the rider starts, against the peak-week table.

The model assumes dry roads without wind, no stops and no technical descents; time at feed stations
comes on top, and it cannot know how much of the event a rider spends sheltered. A converted target is
a direction, not a promise: if the goal-intensity blocks of the last long rides do not hold, the target
is too fast.

## Warm-Up and Cool-Down

A runner's warm-up is a walk, and a walk is not running: it is added before and after the run and does
not count in the running time. A cyclist's warm-up is easy pedalling, which is cycling: it belongs inside
the ride and counts in its minutes.

- **Every ride** starts with about ten minutes of easy spinning — zone 1 rising to low zone 2, a light
  gear, a free cadence — and ends with five to ten minutes of easy spinning. For an endurance or long
  ride that is the whole warm-up: endurance work needs the shortest warm-up, and the first easy minutes
  complete it (warm-up-and-session-structure.md).
- **Quality rides** take fifteen to twenty minutes: ten easy, five rising through zones 2 and 3, two or
  three efforts of 30–60 seconds at the session's intensity, and two to five minutes easy before the
  first interval. An active warm-up helps efforts longer than a few minutes when the rider starts them
  warm but not fatigued; a warm-up that is too hard, or ends too close to the effort, makes things worse.
- **The cool-down** is ten minutes of easy spinning after the last interval. It clears blood lactate
  faster but does not reduce soreness or improve the next day's performance; it costs nothing on a bike
  and brings the heart rate down before the rider stops.
- **On event day**, coaching practice before a time trial is 20–30 minutes with a few short efforts at
  and above goal power, ending five to ten minutes before the start; before a mediofondo or granfondo,
  the first 15–20 minutes of the event, ridden easily.

## Indoor and Outdoor Riding

- **Indoors is efficient**: no traffic, descents or stops, and intervals at exactly the prescribed power.
  It suits weekday quality sessions.
- **The same effort gives less power indoors.** Recreationally trained men told to ride 40 km at the same
  perceived effort produced about 27% more power outdoors (208 against 163 W), with a higher heart rate;
  the indoor rides were warmer and without moving air. Indoor sessions are set by power or heart rate
  rather than feel, with a strong fan.
- **Outdoors is specific.** Handling, descending, group riding, eating on the move and the time-trial
  position on real roads are learned outside. A rider preparing a mass-start event rides the long ride
  outdoors in the specific block, ideally in company and on climbs like the event's.

## Common Mistakes

- Endurance rides ridden too hard, so the quality sessions are ridden tired.
- Intervals ridden above target, turning threshold work into VO2max work and VO2max work into sprints.
- A granfondo preparation without long rides, or a long ride that grows by an hour in a week.
- Training only indoors before a mass-start event: no group riding, no descending, no eating on the bike.
- Training a time trial on the hoods and racing it in an aero position never held for long.
- Stale FTP: zones from a test three months and one block ago.
- A new gel or drink tried for the first time on event day.
- The first climb of a granfondo ridden above threshold with a group that is too fast, paid for in the
  last two hours.
- A saddle height never checked, ridden for hundreds of hours.
- No taper, or a taper that drops all intensity.

## Key Takeaways

1. Build the plan backwards from the event: taper, specific block, then base and build.
2. Most riding stays easy; one or two quality sessions a week carry the intensity — pyramidal for riders
   with few hours, closer to polarized for riders with many.
3. Time trials are won at threshold and in the aero position; mass-start events on the long ride, on the
   climbs, in the group and at the feed.
4. The long ride grows by 15–30 minutes per loading week toward a cap set by the event: two to three
   hours for a time trial, three to four for a mediofondo, four to five and a half for a granfondo.
5. A lighter week every third or fourth week; the peak held for two to three weeks before the taper.
6. Taper 7–14 days, cutting volume by about half and keeping short, intense efforts.
7. Fuel 60–90 g of carbohydrate per hour on rides over two and a half hours, rehearsed in training.
8. A target time is judged by the FTP it asks for, through the physics of air, rolling and climbing.
9. Heavy strength work once or twice a week helps the end of long rides and protects the bones.

## References

- Allen, H., Coggan, A. R., & McGregor, S. (2019). *Training and racing with a power meter* (3rd ed.). VeloPress. ISBN 978-1-937715-93-9.
- Balmer, J., Bird, S., & Davison, R. (2008). Indoor 16.1-km time-trial performance in cyclists aged 25–63 years. *Journal of Sports Sciences*, 26(1), 57–62. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410701348651
- Bini, R., Hume, P. A., & Croft, J. L. (2011). Effects of bicycle saddle height on knee injury risk and cycling performance. *Sports Medicine*, 41(6), 463–476. https://doi.org/10.2165/11588740-000000000-00000
- Bishop, D. (2003). Warm up II: performance changes following active warm up and how to structure the warm up. *Sports Medicine*, 33(7), 483–498. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200333070-00002
- Blocken, B., van Druenen, T., Toparlar, Y., Malizia, F., Mannion, P., Andrianne, T., Marchal, T., Maas, G.-J., & Diepens, J. (2018). Aerodynamic drag in cycling pelotons: new insights by CFD simulation and wind tunnel testing. *Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics*, 179, 319–337. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jweia.2018.06.011
- Borszcz, F. K., Tramontin, A. F., Bossi, A. H., Carminatti, L. J., & Costa, V. P. (2018). Functional threshold power in cyclists: validity of the concept and physiological responses. *International Journal of Sports Medicine*, 39(10), 737–742. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0044-101546
- Bosquet, L., Montpetit, J., Arvisais, D., & Mujika, I. (2007). Effects of tapering on performance: a meta-analysis. *Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise*, 39(8), 1358–1365.
- Burke, L. M., Hawley, J. A., Wong, S. H., & Jeukendrup, A. E. (2011). Carbohydrates for training and competition. *Journal of Sports Sciences*, 29(Suppl 1), S17–S27. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2011.585473
- Clarsen, B., Krosshaug, T., & Bahr, R. (2010). Overuse injuries in professional road cyclists. *The American Journal of Sports Medicine*, 38(12), 2494–2501. https://doi.org/10.1177/0363546510376816
- Coggan, A. R. (2016, updated 2026). Cycling power zones explained (power training levels). TrainingPeaks. https://www.trainingpeaks.com/blog/power-training-levels/
- Coggan, A. R. (2016, updated 2026). Normalized Power, Intensity Factor and Training Stress Score. TrainingPeaks. https://www.trainingpeaks.com/learn/articles/normalized-power-intensity-factor-training-stress/
- Coyle, E. F., & González-Alonso, J. (2001). Cardiovascular drift during prolonged exercise: new perspectives. *Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews*, 29(2), 88–92. https://doi.org/10.1097/00003677-200104000-00009
- Cycling UK. How to train for a 100-mile cycle ride; 10-week training plan for a 100 km ride; Beginner's guide to taking part in your first sportive. https://www.cyclinguk.org/cycle/training-100-mile-ride, https://www.cyclinguk.org/article/10-week-training-plan-100km-ride, https://www.cyclinguk.org/article/beginners-guide-taking-part-first-sportive
- Dahmen, T., & Saupe, D. (2011). Calibration of a power-speed-model for road cycling using real power and height data. *International Journal of Computer Science in Sport*, 10(2), 18–36. (Model parameter values adopted from Martin et al., 1998.)
- de Geus, B., Joncheere, J., & Meeusen, R. (2009). Commuter cycling: effect on physical performance in untrained men and women in Flanders: minimum dose to improve indexes of fitness. *Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports*, 19(2), 179–187. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2008.00776.x
- de Pablos, R., Sánchez-Redondo, I. R., Alejo, L. B., Pallarés, J. G., Barranco-Gil, D., & Valenzuela, P. L. (2026). Resistance training for cyclists: scientific evidence and practical recommendations. *Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports*, 36(10), e70377. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.70377
- Debraux, P., Grappe, F., Manolova, A. V., & Bertucci, W. (2011). Aerodynamic drag in cycling: methods of assessment. *Sports Biomechanics*, 10(3), 197–218. https://doi.org/10.1080/14763141.2011.592209
- Fell, J., Reaburn, P., & Harrison, G. J. (2008). Altered perception and report of fatigue and recovery in veteran athletes. *Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness*, 48(2), 272–277.
- Foster, C., Florhaug, J. A., Franklin, J., Gottschall, L., Hrovatin, L. A., Parker, S., Doleshal, P., & Dodge, C. (2001). A new approach to monitoring exercise training. *Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research*, 15(1), 109–115.
- Foster, C., Porcari, J. P., Anderson, J., Paulson, M., Smaczny, D., Webber, H., Doberstein, S. T., & Udermann, B. (2008). The talk test as a marker of exercise training intensity. *Journal of Cardiopulmonary Rehabilitation and Prevention*, 28(1), 24–30. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.HCR.0000311504.41775.78
- Friel, J. (2012, updated 2026). Joe Friel's quick guide to setting zones. TrainingPeaks. https://www.trainingpeaks.com/learn/articles/joe-friel-s-quick-guide-to-setting-zones
- Garmin Ltd. FTP ratings (owner's manual appendix, based on Allen and Coggan, *Training and Racing with a Power Meter*). https://www8.garmin.com/manuals/webhelp/GUID-C144B465-A0C8-4FE9-AFE6-41A3FE3F1D9A/EN-US/GUID-1F58FA8E-09FF-4E51-B9B4-C4B83ED1D6CE.html
- Gibala, M. J., Little, J. P., van Essen, M., Wilkin, G. P., Burgomaster, K. A., Safdar, A., Raha, S., & Tarnopolsky, M. A. (2006). Short-term sprint interval versus traditional endurance training: similar initial adaptations in human skeletal muscle and exercise performance. *The Journal of Physiology*, 575(3), 901–911. https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.2006.112094
- Grappe, F., Candau, R., Belli, A., & Rouillon, J. D. (1997). Aerodynamic drag in field cycling with special reference to the Obree's position. *Ergonomics*, 40(12), 1299–1311. https://doi.org/10.1080/001401397187388
- Hansen, E. A., & Rønnestad, B. R. (2017). Effects of cycling training at imposed low cadences: a systematic review. *International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance*, 12(9), 1127–1136. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2016-0574
- Inglis, E. C., Iannetta, D., Passfield, L., & Murias, J. M. (2020). Maximal lactate steady state versus the 20-minute functional threshold power test in well-trained individuals: "watts" the big deal? *International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance*, 15(4), 541–547. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2019-0214
- Jeukendrup, A. (2014). A step towards personalized sports nutrition: carbohydrate intake during exercise. *Sports Medicine*, 44(Suppl 1), S25–S33.
- Jeukendrup, A. E. (2017). Training the gut for athletes. *Sports Medicine*, 47(Suppl 1), 101–110. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-017-0690-6
- Klitzke Borszcz, F., Ferreira Tramontin, A., & Pereira Costa, V. (2019). Is the functional threshold power interchangeable with the maximal lactate steady state in trained cyclists? *International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance*, 14(8), 1029–1035. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2018-0572
- Lucía, A., Hoyos, J., & Chicharro, J. L. (2001). Preferred pedalling cadence in professional cycling. *Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise*, 33(8), 1361–1366. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005768-200108000-00018
- Maratona dles Dolomites (2026). Regulation of the 2026 edition (time limits). https://www.maratona.it/public/sitemin/Reglamento_2026_ESP.pdf
- Martin, J. C., Milliken, D. L., Cobb, J. E., McFadden, K. L., & Coggan, A. R. (1998). Validation of a mathematical model for road cycling power. *Journal of Applied Biomechanics*, 14(3), 276–291. https://doi.org/10.1123/jab.14.3.276
- Martínez, P., Martínez, S., Mingorance, J. A., Riera-Sampol, A., Aguiló, A., & Tauler, P. (2025). Gastrointestinal symptoms and nutritional intake among participants in a non-professional cycling event. *European Journal of Applied Physiology*, 125(1), 37–48. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-024-05582-4
- Mateo-March, M., Valenzuela, P. L., Muriel, X., Gandia-Soriano, A., Zabala, M., Lucia, A., Pallares, J. G., & Barranco-Gil, D. (2022). The record power profile of male professional cyclists: fatigue matters. *International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance*, 17(6), 926–931. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2021-0403
- Mateo-March, M., Barranco-Gil, D., Muriel, X., Pallarés, J. G., & Valenzuela, P. L. (2026). Training characteristics of male and female World Tour professional road cyclists before the competitive phase. *Biology of Sport*, 43, 933–940. https://doi.org/10.5114/biolsport.2026.156234
- Maunder, E., Seiler, S., Mildenhall, M. J., Kilding, A. E., & Plews, D. J. (2021). The importance of 'durability' in the physiological profiling of endurance athletes. *Sports Medicine*, 51(8), 1619–1628. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-021-01459-0
- Mieras, M. E., Heesch, M. W., & Slivka, D. R. (2014). Physiological and psychological responses to outdoor vs. laboratory cycling. *Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research*, 28(8), 2324–2329. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000000384
- Mujika, I., & Padilla, S. (2001). Physiological and performance characteristics of male professional road cyclists. *Sports Medicine*, 31(7), 479–487. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200131070-00003
- Mujika, I., & Padilla, S. (2003). Scientific bases for precompetition tapering strategies. *Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise*, 35(7), 1182–1187.
- Neal, C. M., Hunter, A. M., Brennan, L., O'Sullivan, A., Hamilton, D. L., De Vito, G., & Galloway, S. D. (2013). Six weeks of a polarized training-intensity distribution leads to greater physiological and performance adaptations than a threshold model in trained cyclists. *Journal of Applied Physiology*, 114(4), 461–471. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00652.2012
- Neary, J. P., Bhambhani, Y. N., & McKenzie, D. C. (2003). Effects of different stepwise reduction taper protocols on cycling performance. *Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology*, 28(4), 576–587. https://doi.org/10.1139/h03-044
- Neumayr, G., Pfister, R., Mitterbauer, G., Gaenzer, H., Sturm, W., Eibl, G., & Hoertnagl, H. (2002). Exercise intensity of cycle-touring events. *International Journal of Sports Medicine*, 23(7), 505–509. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2002-35068
- Nichols, J. F., Palmer, J. E., & Levy, S. S. (2003). Low bone mineral density in highly trained male master cyclists. *Osteoporosis International*, 14(8), 644–649. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00198-003-1418-z
- Padilla, S., Mujika, I., Orbañanos, J., & Angulo, F. (2000). Exercise intensity during competition time trials in professional road cycling. *Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise*, 32(4), 850–856. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005768-200004000-00019
- Pfeiffer, B., Stellingwerff, T., Hodgson, A. B., Randell, R., Pöttgen, K., Res, P., & Jeukendrup, A. E. (2012). Nutritional intake and gastrointestinal problems during competitive endurance events. *Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise*, 44(2), 344–351. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e31822dc809
- Price, S., Wiecha, S., Cieśliński, I., Śliż, D., Kasiak, P. S., Lach, J., Gruba, G., Kowalski, T., & Mamcarz, A. (2022). Differences between treadmill and cycle ergometer cardiopulmonary exercise testing results in triathletes and their association with body composition and body mass index. *International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health*, 19(6), 3557. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19063557
- Rønnestad, B. R., Hansen, E. A., & Raastad, T. (2010). In-season strength maintenance training increases well-trained cyclists' performance. *European Journal of Applied Physiology*, 110(6), 1269–1282. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-010-1622-4
- Rønnestad, B. R., Hansen, E. A., & Raastad, T. (2011). Strength training improves 5-min all-out performance following 185 min of cycling. *Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports*, 21(2), 250–259. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2009.01035.x
- Rønnestad, B. R., Hansen, J., & Ellefsen, S. (2014). Block periodization of high-intensity aerobic intervals provides superior training effects in trained cyclists. *Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports*, 24(1), 34–42. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2012.01485.x
- Rønnestad, B. R., Hansen, J., Vegge, G., Tønnessen, E., & Slettaløkken, G. (2015). Short intervals induce superior training adaptations compared with long intervals in cyclists – an effort-matched approach. *Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports*, 25(2), 143–151. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.12165
- Rønnestad, B. R., Hansen, J., Nygaard, H., & Lundby, C. (2020). Superior performance improvements in elite cyclists following short-interval vs effort-matched long-interval training. *Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports*, 30(5), 849–857. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.13627
- Rønnestad, B. R., & Mujika, I. (2014). Optimizing strength training for running and cycling endurance performance: a review. *Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports*, 24(4), 603–612. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.12104
- Rønnestad, B. R., & Vikmoen, O. (2019). A 11-day compressed overload and taper induces larger physiological improvements than a normal taper in elite cyclists. *Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports*, 29(12), 1856–1865. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.13536
- Rosenblat, M. A., Perrotta, A. S., & Thomas, S. G. (2020). Effect of high-intensity interval training versus sprint interval training on time-trial performance: a systematic review and meta-analysis. *Sports Medicine*, 50(6), 1145–1161. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-020-01264-1
- Rosenblat, M. A., Watt, J. A., Arnold, J. I., Treff, G., Sandbakk, Ø. B., Esteve-Lanao, J., et al. (2025). Which training intensity distribution intervention will produce the greatest improvements in maximal oxygen uptake and time-trial performance in endurance athletes? A systematic review and network meta-analysis of individual participant data. *Sports Medicine*, 55(3), 655–673. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-024-02149-3
- Sawka, M. N., Burke, L. M., Eichner, E. R., Maughan, R. J., Montain, S. J., & Stachenfeld, N. S. (2007). American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Exercise and fluid replacement. *Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise*, 39(2), 377–390. https://doi.org/10.1249/mss.0b013e31802ca597
- Seiler, S. (2010). What is best practice for training intensity and duration distribution in endurance athletes? *International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance*, 5(3), 276–291. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.5.3.276
- Seiler, S., Jøranson, K., Olesen, B. V., & Hetlelid, K. J. (2013). Adaptations to aerobic interval training: interactive effects of exercise intensity and total work duration. *Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports*, 23(1), 74–83. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2011.01351.x
- Silva Oliveira, P., Boppre, G., & Fonseca, H. (2024). Comparison of polarized versus other types of endurance training intensity distribution on athletes' endurance performance: a systematic review with meta-analysis. *Sports Medicine*, 54(8), 2071–2095. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-024-02034-z
- Sitko, S., López Laval, I., Cirer-Sastre, R., Corbi, F., & Calleja-González, J. (2020). Physiological demands and characteristics of the participants in a cycling sportive event. *Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness*, 60(3), 367–373. https://doi.org/10.23736/S0022-4707.19.10196-X
- Sitko, S., Cirer-Sastre, R., & López-Laval, I. (2022). Time to exhaustion at estimated functional threshold power in road cyclists of different performance levels. *Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport*, 25(9), 783–786. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2022.06.007
- Sitko, S., Cirer-Sastre, R., & López-Laval, I. (2023). An update of the Allen & Coggan equation to predict 60-min power output in cyclists of different performance levels. *International Journal of Sports Medicine*, 44(13), 983–987. https://doi.org/10.1055/a-2079-1363
- Smith, J. W., Pascoe, D. D., Passe, D. H., Ruby, B. C., Stewart, L. K., Baker, L. B., & Zachwieja, J. J. (2013). Curvilinear dose-response relationship of carbohydrate (0–120 g·h⁻¹) and performance. *Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise*, 45(2), 336–341. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e31827205d1
- Stepto, N. K., Hawley, J. A., Dennis, S. C., & Hopkins, W. G. (1999). Effects of different interval-training programs on cycling time-trial performance. *Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise*, 31(5), 736–741. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005768-199905000-00018
- Tanaka, H., & Seals, D. R. (2008). Endurance exercise performance in Masters athletes: age-associated changes and underlying physiological mechanisms. *The Journal of Physiology*, 586(1), 55–63.
- Thomas, D. T., Erdman, K. A., & Burke, L. M. (2016). American College of Sports Medicine joint position statement: nutrition and athletic performance. *Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise*, 48(3), 543–568.
- UCI (Union Cycliste Internationale). UCI Hour Record: 56.792 km, Filippo Ganna, Grenchen, 8 October 2022 (stated in the UCI press release on the Tanfield and Bjergfelt attempts). https://www.uci.org/pressrelease/charlie-tanfield-and-william-bjergfelt-set-their-sights-on-the-uci-hour/3omOIQcJgimgDsnBiWZwrO
- UCI Gran Fondo World Series Brazil (2026). Event regulation (time limits). https://cdn.ticketsports.com.br/ticketagora/arquivos/evento/85004/13e20ca41d19444e8c1b9db106419c57639050432525311886.pdf
- Van Hooren, B., & Peake, J. M. (2018). Do we need a cool-down after exercise? A narrative review of the psychophysiological effects and the effects on performance, injuries and the long-term adaptive response. *Sports Medicine*, 48(7), 1575–1595. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-018-0916-2
- Vikmoen, O., Ellefsen, S., Trøen, Ø., Hollan, I., Hanestadhaugen, M., Raastad, T., & Rønnestad, B. R. (2016). Strength training improves cycling performance, fractional utilization of VO2max and cycling economy in female cyclists. *Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports*, 26(4), 384–396. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.12468
- Wang, Z., Wang, Y. T., Gao, W., & Zhong, Y. (2023). Effects of tapering on performance in endurance athletes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. *PLoS ONE*, 18(5), e0282838. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0282838
- Yamamoto, L. M., Klau, J. F., Casa, D. J., Kraemer, W. J., Armstrong, L. E., & Maresh, C. M. (2010). The effects of resistance training on road cycling performance among highly trained cyclists: a systematic review. *Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research*, 24(2), 560–566. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181c86583